# New Beginnings: Cities and States

## Overview
This chapter explores India’s Second Urbanisation during the 1st millennium BCE, tracing the emergence of janapadas and mahājanapadas, early democratic traditions, innovations in governance, metallurgy, and economy. It also introduces the varṇa-jāti system and the role of trade and communication networks in shaping ancient Indian society.

## Key Topics Covered

### 1. India’s Second Urbanisation
- After the decline of the Harappan Civilisation (First Urbanisation), urban life disappeared for nearly a thousand years.
- The Second Urbanisation began in the Ganga plains, fueled by fertile land, trade, and availability of iron.
- Evidence for this phase comes from archaeological finds and ancient texts like Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain literature.

### 2. Janapadas and Mahājanapadas
- **Janapadas**: Small territorial units led by a rājā, based on clans sharing common customs and language.
- **Mahājanapadas**: Larger states formed by merging smaller janapadas by 8th–7th centuries BCE. Sixteen such states are frequently mentioned in texts.
- Examples include Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, and Avanti.
- Most had fortified cities with moats and narrow gateways for security and control.

### 3. Early Forms of Governance
- Governance included **sabha** and **samiti** (assemblies) mentioned in Vedic texts.
- The rājā ruled with the advice of elders and ministers.
- Some mahājanapadas like Vajji and Malla had early democratic systems—decisions were made by voting and the rājā was elected.
- These systems are called **ganas** or **sanghas**, considered among the earliest republics.

### 4. Role of Iron and Urban Growth
- Shift from bronze to iron tools helped expand agriculture and warfare.
- Iron tools were stronger, lighter, and sharper, supporting larger settlements and trade.
- Military conflict and alliances led to the rise of powerful kingdoms.

### 5. Emergence of Coinage
- Trade required a common medium of exchange—coins.
- The first Indian coins were **punch-marked coins**, mostly of silver, followed by copper and gold coins.
- Coins facilitated trade within and outside the Subcontinent.

### 6. The Varṇa–Jāti System
- **Jāti**: Occupational group, often hereditary, passed through generations.
- **Varṇa**: Four broad categories from Vedic literature:
- **Brahmins** – knowledge and rituals
- **Kshatriyas** – warriors and rulers
- **Vaishyas** – traders and farmers
- **Shudras** – artisans and workers
- Society was initially flexible but became rigid over time, leading to inequalities.


### 7. Developments Across the Subcontinent
- Trade and travel routes like the **Uttarapatha** (northwest to eastern India) and **Dakṣhiṇapatha** (north to south) enabled cultural and economic exchange.
- Cities like **Śhiśhupalgarh** (modern Bhubaneswar) emerged with structured layouts and fortifications.
- In the southern region, by around 400 BCE, kingdoms like the **Cholas**, **Chera**, and **Pānḍyas** developed, supported by rich resources like spices and gemstones.
- By 300 BCE, most of the Subcontinent was interconnected through trade, shared culture, and ideas.

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## New Terms and Simple Definitions

| Term | Simple Definition |
|-------------------|------------------|
| Urbanisation | The growth of cities and towns |
| Janapada | A small state formed by a group of people (clan) |
| Mahājanapada | A large kingdom formed by merging many janapadas |
| Sabha / Samiti | Council or assembly of elders in early governance |
| Gana / Sangha | A republic-like system with elected rulers |
| Moat | A deep water-filled ditch around a fort |
| Iron Metallurgy | Technology of making tools and weapons from iron |
| Punch-marked coins| Early Indian coins with symbols punched into metal |
| Jāti | A group of people with the same occupation |
| Varṇa | Four main social classes in ancient Indian texts |

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## Practice Questions

### Easy (3)

1. **What is meant by ‘Second Urbanisation’?**
→ The second major phase of city development in India during the 1st millennium BCE.

2. **Name any two powerful mahājanapadas.**
→ Magadha and Kosala.

3. **Which metal became widely used during the Second Urbanisation?**
→ Iron.

### Medium (2)

4. **How were decisions made in the gana or sangha states?**
→ Through discussion and voting in the assembly.

5. **What was the role of punch-marked coins in ancient India?**
→ They helped in trade by acting as a medium of exchange.

### Difficult (3)

6. **How did iron tools contribute to urbanisation in ancient India?**
→ Iron tools improved agriculture and warfare, helping in the expansion of cities and trade.

7. **What were the main differences between varṇa and jāti?**
→ Varṇa was a broad social category from Vedic texts; jāti was an occupation-based community that passed skills through generations.

8. **Why were most mahājanapadas concentrated in the Ganga plains?**
→ Fertile land, access to iron ore, and trade networks made it suitable for growth.

### Very Difficult (2)

9. **Compare the political systems of monarchic and republican mahājanapadas.**
→ Monarchies had hereditary kings, while republics (gana/sangha) had assemblies that selected rulers and made decisions.

10. **How did trade and road networks contribute to cultural unity in ancient India?**
→ They allowed goods, ideas, and beliefs to spread, linking diverse regions of the Subcontinent.

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